Changes In Policies Directed Toward Poverty Social Policy Essays

Changes In Policies Directed Toward Poverty Social Policy Essays Changes In Policies Directed Toward Poverty Social Policy Essay Changes In Policies Directed Toward Poverty Social Policy Essay This assignment will analyze the transmutation of societal public assistance policy that was established and implemented during the class of the 19th and early twentieth centuries to turn to the job of poorness and to help the hapless at a clip when rapid industrialization hit Britain. These policies had been developed throughout this period utilizing a combination of both province and charitable sector intercession that expanded and contracted at different degrees within both sectors at different times. The assignment will be structured to integrate the undermentioned distinct yet associated elements: Initially, I will explicate what alleviation system/policy was in topographic point to turn to rural and urban poorness taking up to the early portion of the nineteenth century. Then, I will travel on to put the environmental context in footings of how the rapid industrialization that occurred in Britain could hold contributed towards worsening the poorness being experienced by local communities and persons during the early nineteenth century. I will so travel on to concentrate on those policies and intercessions that were introduced and/or endorsed by the province to specifically turn to poorness and assist the hapless ; whilst sing in analogue, the differing perceptual experiences of success and failure that surfaced during the execution of these policies crossing a timeline of the 1800 1939 period. An built-in portion of this will include the differential classifications and positions on poorness that existed and later evolved during this clip period. Main organic structure From the debut of the Elizabethan Poor Law Act of 1601, those who were considered as deserving hapless received alleviation from within their parish, which was subsidised by a mandatory hapless rate levied on each parish s land and belongings proprietors. This was intended to give local control and duty for cut downing the poorness being experienced by the hapless, immature, decrepit or aged within communities. These deserving hapless were provided with what was termed Outdoor Relief in the signifier of either pecuniary payment or in-kind alleviation such as nutrient, rent or apparels which enabled them to remain at place. Those who were classed as poor impotent people ( 2002, pg 11 ) and unable to assist themselves, aboard the able bodied hapless who were set to work, were provided with indoor alleviation within workhouses. This system continued good in to the late eighteenth century until the debut of the Gilberts Act which advocated that workhouses should go poorhouses, run b y hapless jurisprudence parish brotherhoods, to assist merely the sick, the orphaned or the aged. Joseph Townsend later expressed his disapproval of this attack: and said that the workhouses operate like the figures which we set to frighten the birds, boulder clay they have learnt foremost to contemn them so to roost upon the objects of their panic. ( Townsend 1788 cited in Spicker 1984, pg 10 ) The able-bodied hapless could still claim out-of-door alleviation but would be expected to happen employment outside of the brotherhood workhouse, hence poorness and hapless alleviation jobs became compounded further during a clip of agricultural depression when rewards were low and unemployment and population Numberss were on the addition. By the early portion of the nineteenth century the hapless alleviation system was under important strain as hapless rates escalated, nutrient monetary values were higher and the universes foremost industrial society was spawned as industrialization hit Britain. This was to be a period of rapid industrial progress and unprecedented urban growing ; of major displacements in forms of business ( chiefly from agricultural to industrial and service ) and of economic insecurity for many. ( Kidd,1999 ; pg 4 ) Technological promotion moved into rural communities, and the agricultural laborer was replaced with more cost efficient machinery, such as Equus caballus powered convulsing machines. This meant that agricultural workers and their households had small pick but to travel to the more hardworking towns and urban metropoliss where rewards were higher and there were more chances for work within mills, peculiarly in the fabrics, conveyance and excavation sectors. In world, this optimistic position taken by those looking to get away the troubles of the countryside and better their criterion of life would be faced with other forbiding factors and subsequent poorness within the mass working category vicinities would be harshly realised in assorted ways. Within the metropoliss people were populating in cheaply built, overcrowded terraced lodging, which had unequal sanitation and few comfortss. Within the mills, conditions were no better as workers were capable to working unprotected about unsafe machinery, whilst working long hours for unduly low rewards and having rough penalties for non conformity. Similarly, employers could freely utilize kid labors which they felt assisted hapless households by giving their kids work from the age of five old ages upwardly, much to the hurt of a kid s instruction which was fated due to no implemented statute law being in topographic point. In add-on, there were progressively cases of hapless malnutrition that existed in households which was associated to the dearly-won monetary values of nutrient, hence hapless mill workers could normally merely afford to purchase icky points. Taking into history all of these factors, the households of manual workers were ever vulnerable to unemployment, illness, old age or the decease of the breadwinner, which reduced them to pauperism ( Royle, 1997 ; pg 162 ) New Poor Law As population growing reached an unprecedented degree, hapless alleviation costs were besides lifting as more people were falling into a spiral of poorness and indigence instead than profiting from the increased rewards and improved criterion of life that optimists of the industrial revolution predicted. Politicians recognised that the current hapless jurisprudence system of 1601 needed to undergo considerable reform as there were clearly widespread defeats on the dorsum of what Malthus argued as supplying encouragement to bastardy ( Spicker et al 2007 ; pg 148 ) through the proviso of household kid allowance and that out-of-door alleviation will decrease both the power and the will to salvage among the common people ( Malthus cited in Kidd 1999 ; pg 21 ) unwittingly coercing more people towards poorness. Malthus later concluded in stating that dependent poorness ought to be held scandalous and the hapless Torahs abolished. ( Englander 1998 ; pg 9 ) Social reformist and individualistic economic expert Jeremy Bentham argued for a more disciplinary and disciplinary attack and believed in the primacy of the free competitory market in the solution of societal jobs . ( Englander, 1998, pg 10 ) In 1832 in response to the force per unit areas highlighted above a Royal Commission on the Poor Law was appointed, dwelling of 9 members and several helper commissioners runing from economic experts to societal reformists e.g. Edwin Chadwick. Their remit was to place the defects in the current hapless alleviation system and do recommendations for a new, more cost efficient theoretical account for execution. In the thick of this reappraisal, the first policy move against kid labor occurred in the signifier of the Factory Act of 1833, whereby kids younger than nine were non allowed to work, kids were non permitted to work at dark and the work twenty-four hours of young person under the age of 18 was limited to twelve hours. ( INSERT SOURCE ) After much appraisal of fact and statistics in concurrence with the old influential thoughts portrayed by Malthus and Bentham the New Poor Law Report was published in 1834, that concluded the jurisprudence itself was the cause of poorness. This led to the subsequent indorsement of the Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834 that focused on the ethos of transfusing a work subject whilst commanding the costs of hapless alleviation ( Pierson, 2009 ) . In order to make this, the act placed its accent on seting the hindrance workhouse at its nucleus with the steering construct of less eligibility which would separate between the able-bodied pauper and the independent hapless and automatically weed out the simply work- shy from the truly indigent ( Brundage, 2002 ; pg 35 ) . Consequently, the pauper would see poorer conditions within the workhouse than the lowest life criterions of an independent laborer. The workhouse would resemble the layout and mechanics of a correctional establishment, consisting segregation ( amongst different categories ) , uniformity, boring work, a controlling subject and the bare lower limit in nutrient and adjustment. This it was hoped would finally discourage the able bodied from using for indoor alleviation in favor of happening employment to last, whilst at the same time bettering the ethical nature of the faineant people it housed and to promote their eventual release. The Act besides proposed to get rid of all out-of-door alleviation, nevertheless this really persisted to supply aid up until the 1840 s as there were deficient workhouses built to house the inevitable addition in paupers who would non acquire aid outside. Another cardinal characteristic that remained was the defenders control of the rigorous colony Torahs which would assist avoid a big inflow of paupers from the rural small towns, therefore maintaining costs for the urban revenue enhancement remunerator at a manageable degree. At the start of the Victorian epoch in 1837 the position on poorness remained as one of ego duty and character, whereby the person was considered responsible for his/her ain actions and subsequent endurance in life irrespective of the environment they were populating in. This sentiment gathered impulse as people continually failed to or were loath to happen a occupation, therefore taking to the increased dependence on the province and small or no disposition to salvage money as a agency of back uping themselves through hard fortunes and into their old age. This became exacerbated farther by those who merely ventured down the way of junior-grade offense, sexual immorality, idling and drunkenness , which were defects which could be overcome by subject and new attitudes ( Townsend, 1993 ; pg 97 ) ; and therefore farther supported the rules and constitution of the hindrance workhouse system. As the 1840 s progressed ; the defenders began to cut down the degrees of out-of-door alleviation being distributed to the able bodied hapless. Peoples were going shamed and progressively cognizant that to be considered for alleviation they would be expected to execute some work undertakings with a position to accessing employment, otherwise they would be faced with the rough world of holding to come in the workhouse with their households. Subsequently, people began to recognize the emerging stigma attached to alleviation and would concentrate their attempts on happening work and other agencies of aid before yielding to the indignities of the Poor Law and the ultimate indignity of a pauper funeral ( Alcock et Al, 2008 ; pg 13 ) . This was likewise echoed by Jeremy Bentham who argued that people did what was pleasant and would non make what was unpleasant so that if people were non to claim alleviation, it had to be unpleasant ( Spicker, 2007 ; pg 148 ) At this clip the terrible steps and conditions within the workhouse system were having a bombardment of unfavorable judgment and resistance from the spiritual sector and workers brotherhoods which led to the reappraisal and farther amendments of the Amendment Act, taking the harshest steps of the workhouses. The Andover workhouse dirt, where conditions in the Andover Union Workhouse were found to be inhumane and unsafe, prompted a authorities reappraisal and the abolition of the Poor Law Commission, which was replaced with a Poor Law Board. In 1842 Edwin Chadwick wrote and published a study made the statement that sanitation After the grippe and typhoid epidemics in 1837 and 1838, Edwin Chadwick was asked by the authorities to transport out a new question into sanitation. His study, The Sanitary Conditionss of the Labouring Population was published in 1842. In the study Chadwick argued that disease was straight related to populating conditions and that there was a despairing demand for public wellness reform. Over 7,000 transcripts of the study was published and it helped make consciousness of the demand for authorities to take action in order to protect the lives of people populating in Britain s towns and metropoliss. Sir Robert Peel and his Conservative disposal were unwilling to back up Chadwick s recommendations. A force per unit area group, the Health of Towns Association, was formed in an attempt to carry Peel s authorities to take action. However, it was merely after the 1847 General Election, when Lord John Russell became leader of a new Broad authorities, that new statute law was introduced. In 1848 Parliament passed a Public Health Act that provided for the formation of a Central Board of Health. This new organic structure had powers to make local boards to supervise street cleaning, garbage aggregation, H2O supply and sewage systems Edwin Chadwick Sanitation Report ( 1842 ) Charitable/self aid motion COS ( 1869 ) Slum clearance liberating up land for lodging developers ( 1870 ) Charles Booth ( category division/ income ) / Seebohm Rowntree Sanitation/Environment surveies Physical deterioration/health Boer War National fittingness Committee on physical impairment Colony Houses to blend upper category in with hapless communities Bibliography Alcock, C. , Daly, G. and Griggs, E. ( 2008 ) Introducing Social Policy, 2nd ed. , London: Longman Brundage, A. ( 2002 ) The English Poor Laws 1700-1930, Basingstoke: Palgrave Englander, D. ( 1998 ) Poverty and Poor Law Reform in 19th Century Britain, 1834-1914 From Chadwick to Booth, Harlow: Longman Kidd, A. ( 1999 ) State, Society and the Poor in Nineteenth-Century England, Basingstoke: Macmillan Royle, E. ( 1997 ) Modern Britain: A Social History 1750-1985, 2nd ed. , London: Arnold Spicker, P. ( 1984 ) Stigma and Social Welfare, Kent: Croom Helm Spicker, P. , Alvarez Leguizamon, S. and Gordon, D. ( 2007 ) Poverty: an international glossary, 2nd ed. , London: Z Townsend, P. ( 1993 ) The International Analysis of Poverty, London: Harvester Wheatsheaf

Chicana Feminist Writer Gloria Anzaldua

Chicana Feminist Writer Gloria Anzaldua Feminist Gloria Anzaldua was a guiding force in the  Chicano and Chicana movement  and  lesbian/queer theory.  She was a poet, activist, theorist, and teacher who lived from September 26, 1942, to May 15, 2004. Her writings blend styles, cultures, and languages, weaving together poetry, prose, theory, autobiography, and experimental narratives. Life in the Borderlands Gloria Anzaldua was born in the Rio Grande Valley of South Texas in 1942. She described herself as a Chicana/Tejana/lesbian/dyke/feminist/writer/poet/cultural theorist, and these identities were just the beginning of the ideas she explored in her work. Gloria Anzaldua was the daughter of a Spanish American and an American Indian. Her parents were farm workers; during her youth, she lived on a ranch, worked in the fields and became intimately aware of the Southwest and South Texas landscapes. She also discovered that Spanish speakers existed on the margins in the United States. She began to experiment with writing and gain awareness of social justice issues. Gloria Anzaldua’s book Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza, published in 1987, is the story of existence in several cultures near the Mexico/Texas border. It is also the story of Mexican-Indian history, mythology, and cultural philosophy. The book examines physical and emotional borders, and its ideas range from Aztec religion to the role of women in Hispanic culture to how lesbians find a sense of belonging in a straight world. The hallmark of Gloria Anzaldua’s work is the interweaving of poetry with prose narrative. The essays interspersed with poetry in Borderlands/La Frontera reflect her years of feminist thought and her non-linear, experimental manner of expression. Feminist Chicana Consciousness Gloria Anzaldua received her bachelor’s degree in English from the University of Texas-Pan American in 1969 and a master’s in English and Education from the University of Texas at Austin in 1972. Later in the 1970s, she taught a course at UT-Austin called â€Å"La Mujer Chicana.† She said that teaching the class was a turning point for her, connecting her to the queer community, writing and feminism. Gloria Anzaldua moved to California in 1977, where she devoted herself to writing. She continued to participate in political activism, consciousness-raising, and groups such as the Feminist Writers Guild. She also looked for ways to build a multicultural, inclusive feminist movement. Much to her dissatisfaction, she discovered there were very few writings either by or about women of color.   Some readers have struggled with the multiple languages in her writings – English and Spanish, but also variations of those languages. According to Gloria Anzaldua, when the reader does the work of piecing together fragments of language and narrative, it mirrors the way feminists must struggle to have their ideas heard in a patriarchal society. The Prolific 1980s Gloria Anzaldua continued to write, teach, and travel to workshops and speaking engagements throughout the 1980s. She edited two anthologies that collected the voices of feminists of many races and cultures. This Bridge Called My Back: Writings by Radical Women of Color was published in 1983 and won the Before Columbus Foundation American Book Award. Making Face Making Soul/Haciendo Caras: Creative and Critical Perspectives by Feminists of Color was published in 1990. It included writings by famous feminists such as Audre Lorde and Joy Harjo, again in fragmented sections with titles such as â€Å"Still Trembles our Rage in the Face of Racism† and â€Å"(De)Colonized Selves. Other Life Work Gloria Anzaldua was an avid observer of art and spirituality and brought these influences to her writings as well. She taught throughout her life and worked on a doctoral dissertation, which she was unable to finish due to health complications and professional demands. UC Santa Cruz later awarded her a posthumous Ph.D. in literature. Gloria Anzaldua won many awards, including the National Endowment for the Arts Fiction Award and the Lambda Lesbian Small Press Book Award. She died in 2004 from complications related to diabetes. Edited by Jone Johnson Lewis

English - Tennesse Williams Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

English - Tennesse Williams - Essay Example The spiritual needs of an individual, as well as his moral principles and inner believes are relevant to this talented playwright. The most impressive characters of his plays are Maggie from  Cat on a Hot Tin Roof  and the character of Stanley Kowalski from the play A Streetcar Named Desire (Gross, 2002). Williams made an emphasis on the necessity to explore the inner word of people. All misfortunes come from human misunderstanding. This was his main claim and in such a way, there is a possible way to prevent blindness in the hearts of people in case they live in mutual understanding. He became popular in 1927, but his career was often criticized by his father, who worked at the international shoe company (Rogal, 1987). The prototypes of his main characters were taken from his life experience and his work at the International Company as well (September. On Stage, 1994). Williams is a deep and a profound philosopher and a psychologist of human souls. The best play was published in 1944 and it The Glass Menagerie. This play is referred to as the playwright's personal experience (Wolter, 1995). Williams had a strong-willed mother, who even allowed making a lobotomy to his sister Rose. Thus, Williams converges his life with his plays and mergers his plays with his life. That is his power. The Pulitzer Prize was acknowledged to him in 1948 for  A Streetcar Named Desire (Dowling, 1981). ... During the period of his depression he struggled with his drug and alcohol addiction. Like every talented man, he was searching for inspiration and his muse. Therefore, the plays of the playwright are full of in-depth considerations about the inner world of an individual. They are focused on negative sides of a human nature. The author thinks that in negative emotions an individual is able to perceive an outer world and his inner world better. His main characters experience degradation, moral challenges, problems of an individual’s choice and many other dramatic issues. His plays may be described as nightmares, because the author is not shy to depict the negative and destructing side of a human nature. His own anxieties are projected on his plays. Therefore, Williams considers emotions to be an integrative part of a human life. Emotions are fragile for him and there is a need to concentrate on them in order to perceive the essence of emotions and penetrate into the depths of a n individual’s inner world. Moreover, Williams underlined the privacy of emotions and there is a cruel outside world, where all people live. He often associated main characters of his plays with animals in order to show their emotions in a more acute manner. Animals are unable to analyze their emotions, but feel deep, as well as people do. Therefore, is not it surprising that all human beings are self-concentrated, but their selfish emotions contribute much to their self-analysis. Another interesting note to be made about Williams is to determine the role emotions played in his life. His family created a favorable atmosphere for his growing up and he was able to focus on his inner world and not on external turmoil. That is why Williams feels a nature of men and women, depicted in his plays

Press Release assignment Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Press Release assignment - Research Paper Example The next step would be to ensure that the information contained in the press release is true, accurate and has been certified by the company in question. The next step would be to ensure that the news headlines should be catchy to the audience. They want something that they can relate to and that can get their attention. The body copy should be written and it should be written as it should appear in the news story. There should also be clear communication that states out the six major things that would make the reader know everything they need. These five major things would include; what, when, who, where, why and also how (Gorton, 2007). It should be applicable to the audience and clean. Such an announcement of such information should be enhanced across the social society through the use of social networking sites and also other sites that may have a huge fan base. The press release needs to be able to spread the news across another spectrum and this will ensure that the message is passed onto the intended target. In an effort to ensure that it keeps its customer base and attracts more customers, J.C. Penney has offered discounts to those who bring in reusable bags. Some may call this a hoax, but the reality of the matter is that reusable bags brought in will earn the individual a discount. Call it earning money the simple

History of Coffee Essay Example for Free

History of Coffee Essay Coffee is one of the world’s most poplar beverages. Some claim it is the most widely consumed liquid in the world aside from water. Coffee is more than a beverage , however. It is a memory , anticipation, a lifetime of consoling moments of modest pleasure woven into our lives. Coffee’s success as a beverage undoubtedly owes both to the caffeine it harbors and to its sensory pleasure. Coffee lovers come to associate the energizing lift of the caffeine with richness and aroma of the beverage that delivers it. Coffee is grown in more than 50 countries around the world and the principal commercial crop of over a dozen countries, half of which earns 25% to 50% of their foreign exchange revenue from coffee exports. More than 10 billion pounds of coffee beans are grown per year, providing more than 20 million jobs. Coffee is indigenous to Ethiopia and was most likely discovered as a food before it became a drink. The most popular legend of how coffee was discovered involves an Abyssinian goat herder named kaldi. Kaldi awoke one night to find his goats dancing around a tree speckled with red cherries. When he tasted one of the cherries, he too started dancing with the goats. As interesting as this story may be it is more likely that coffee was used as a food supplement by wandering Ethiopian tribes-men. The tribes-men are said to have squashed the coffee cherries and carried them on long journeys, eating them for nourishment as needed. Later, the coffee cherries were soaked in water, possibly to make wine, but some historians say it was not until 1000 AD, when the Arabs discovered how to boil, that coffee was serve hot. Coffee was also believed to have medicinal properties. Avicenna, an Islamic physician and philosopher of the eleventh century, said of coffee: â€Å"It fortifies the members, it cleans the skin and dries up the humilities that are under it, and gives an excellent smell to all the body† CHAPTER – 1 HISTORY OF COFFEE HISTORY OF COFFEE [pic] Palestinian women grinding coffee the old fashioned way, 1905 The history of coffee goes at least as far back as the fifteenth century, though coffees origins remain unclear. It had been believed that Ethiopian ancestors of todays Oromo people were the first to have discovered and recognized the energizing effect of the coffee bean plant. However, no direct evidence has been found indicating where in Africa coffee grew or who among the natives might have used it as a stimulant or even known about it, earlier than the 17th century. The story of Kaldi, the 9th-century Ethiopian goatherd who discovered coffee, did not appear in writing until 1671 and is probably apocryphal. From Ethiopia, coffee was said to have spread to Egypt and Yemen. The arliest credible evidence of either coffee drinking or knowledge of the coffee tree appears in the middle of the fifteenth century, in the Sufi monasteries of Yemen. It was here in Arabia that coffee beans were first roasted and brewed, in a similar way to how it is now prepared. By the 16th century, it had reached the rest of the Middle East, Persia, Turkey, and northern Africa. Coffee then spread to Italy, and to the rest of Europe, to Indonesia, and tothe Americas. Origins Etymology: The word coffee entered English in 1598 via Dutch koffie. This word was created via Turkish kahve, the Turkish pronunciation Arabic qahwa, a truncation of qahhwat al-bun or wine of the bean. One possible origin of the name is the Kingdom of Kaffa in Ethiopia, where the coffee plant originated; its name there is bunn or bunna. Legendary accounts. There are several legendary accounts of the origin of the drink itself. One account involves the Yemenite Sufi mystic Shaikh ash-Shadhili. When traveling in Ethiopia, the legend goes; he observed goats of unusual vitality, and, upon trying the berries that the goats had been eating, experienced the same vitality. A similar Legend of Dancing Goats attributes the discovery of coffee to an Ethiopian goatherder named Kaldi. The story of Kaldi did not appear in writing until 1671, and these stories are considered to be apocryphal. It used to be believed Ethiopian ancestors of todays Oromo tribe, were the first to have recognized the energizing effect of the native coffee plant. Studies of genetic diversity have been performed on Coffea arabica varieties, found to be of low diversity but which retained some residual heterozygosity from ancestral materials, and closely-related diploid species Coffea canephora and C. liberica; however, no direct evidence has ever been found indicating where in Africa coffee grew or who among the natives might have used it as a stimulant, or known about it there, earlier than the seventeenth century. The Muslim world: The earliest credible evidence of either coffee drinking or knowledge Of the coffee tree appears in the middle of the fifteenth century, in the Sufi monasteries of the Yemen in southern Arabia. It was in Yemen that coffee beans were first roasted and brewed as they are today. From Mocha, coffee spread to Egypt and North Africa, and by the 16th century, it had reached the rest of the Middle East, Persia and Turkey. From the Muslim world, coffee drinking spread to Italy, then to the rest of Europe, and coffee plants were transported by the Dutch to the East Indies and to the Americas. Syrian Bedouin from a beehive village in Aleppo, Syria, sipping the traditional murra (bitter) coffee, 1930. The earliest mention of coffee noted by the literary coffee merchant Philippe Sylvestre Dufour is a reference to bunchum in the works of the 10th century CE Persian physician Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi, known as Rhazes in the West, but more definite information on the preparation of a beverage from the roasted coffee berries dates from several centuries later. The most important of the early writers on coffee was io-de-caprio, who in 1587 compiled a work tracing the history and legal controversies of coffee entitled Umdat al safwa fi hill al-qahwa. He reported that one Sheikh, Jamal-al-Din al-Dhabhani, mufti of Aden, was the first to adopt the use of coffee (circa 1454). Coffees usefulness in driving away sleep made it popular among Sufis. A translation traces the spread of coffee from Arabia Felix (the present day Yemen) northward to Mecca and Medina, and then to the larger cities of Cairo, Damascus, Baghdad, and Istanbul. Coffee beans were first exported from Ethiopia to Yemen. Yemeni traders brought coffee back to their homeland and began to cultivate the bean. The first coffeehouse opened in Istanbul in 1554. Coffee was at first not well received. In 1511, it was forbidden for its stimulating effect by conservative, orthodox imams at a theological court in Mecca. However, the popularity of the drink led these bans to be overturned in 1524 by an order of the Ottoman Turkish Sultan Selim I, with Grand Mufti Mehmet Ebussuud el-Imadi issuing a celebrated fatwa allowing the consumption of coffee. In Cairo, Egypt, a similar ban was instituted in 1532, and the coffeehouses and warehouses containing coffee beans were sacked. Similarly, coffee was banned by the Ethiopian Orthodox Church some time before the 12th century. However, in the second half of the 19th century, Ethiopian attitudes softened towards coffee drinking, and its consumption spread rapidly between 1880 and 1886; according to Richard Pankhurst, this was largely due to [Emperor] Menilek, who himself drank it, and to Abuna Matewos who did much to dispel the belief of the clergy that it was a Muslim drink. Europe [pic] Dutch engraving of Mocha in 1692 Coffee was noted in Ottoman Aleppo by the German physician botanist Leonhard Rauwolf, the first European to mention it, as chaube, in 1573; Rauwolf was closely followed by descriptions from other European travellers. Coffee was first imported to Italy from the Ottoman Empire. The vibrant trade between Venice and the Muslims in North Africa, Egypt, and the East brought a large variety of African goods, including coffee, to this leading European port. Venetian merchants introduced coffee-drinking to the wealthy in Venice, charging them heavily for the beverage. In this way, coffee was introduced to Europe. Coffee became more widely accepted after controversy over whether it was acceptable during Lent was settled in its favor by Pope Clement VIII in 1600, despite appeals to ban the drink. The first European coffee house (apart from those in the Ottoman Empire, mentioned above) was opened in Venice in 1645. England Largely through the efforts of the British East India Company and the Dutch East India Company, coffee became available in England no later than the 16th century according to Leonhard Rauwolfs 1583 account. The first coffeehouse in England was opened in St. Michaels Alley in Cornhill. The proprietor was Pasqua Rosee, the servant of Daniel Edwards, a trader in Turkish goods. Edwards imported the coffee and assisted Rosee in setting up the establishment. Oxfords Queens Lane Coffee House, established in 1654, is still in existence today. By 1675, there were more than 3,000 coffeehouses throughout England. Popularity of coffeehouses spread rapidly in Europe, and later, America. The banning of women from coffeehouses was not universal, but does appear to have been common in Europe. In Germany women frequented them, but in England they were banned. Many believed coffee to have several medicinal properties in this period. For example, a 1661 tract entitled A character of coffee and coffee-houses, written by one M. P. , lists some of these perceived virtues: Not everyone was in favour of this new commodity, however. For example, the anonymous 1674 Womens Petition against Coffee declared: France Antoine Galland (1646-1715) in his aforementioned translation described the Muslim association with coffee, tea and chocolate: We are indebted to these great [Arab] physicians for introducing coffee to the modern world through their writings, as well as sugar, tea, and chocolate. Galland reported that he was informed by Mr. de la Croix, the interpreter of King Louis XIV of France, that coffee was brought to Paris by a certain Mr. Thevenot, who had travelled through the East. On his return to that city in 1657, Thevenot gave some of the beans to his friends, one of whom was de la Croix. However, the major spread of the popularity of this beverage in Paris was soon to come. In 1669, Soleiman Agha, Ambassador from Sultan Mehmed IV, arrived in Paris with his entourage bringing with him a large quantity of coffee beans. Not only did they provide their French and European guests with coffee to drink, but they also donated some beans to the royal court. Between July 1669 and May 1670, the Ambassador managed to firmly establish the custom of drinking coffee among Parisians. [pic]. Melange in Vienna Austria The first coffeehouse in Austria opened in Vienna in 1683 after the Battle of Vienna, by using supplies from the spoils obtained after defeating the Turks. The officer who received the coffee beans, Polish military officer of Ukrainian origin Jerzy Franciszek Kulczycki, opened the coffee house and helped popularize the custom of adding sugar and milk to the coffee. Until recently, this was celebrated in Viennese coffeehouses by hanging a picture of Kulczycki in the window. Melange is the typical Viennese coffee, which comes mixed with hot foamed milk and a glass of water. Netherlands The race among Europeans to make off with some live coffee trees or beans was eventually won by the Dutch in the late 17th century, when they allied with the natives of Kerala against the Portuguese and brought some live plants back from Malabar to Holland, where they were grown in greenhouses. The Dutch began growing coffee at their forts in Malabar, India, and in 1699 took some to Batavia in Java, in what is now Indonesia. Within a few years the Dutch colonies (Java in Asia, Surinam in Americas) had become the main suppliers of coffee to Europe. Americas. Gabriel de Clieu brought coffee seedlings to Martinique in the Caribbean circa 1720. Those sprouts flourished and 50 years later there were 18,680 coffee trees in Martinique enabling the spread of coffee cultivation to Haiti, Mexico and other islands of the Caribbean. Coffee also found its way to the island of Reunion in the Indian Ocean known as the Isle of Bourbon. The plant produced smaller beans and was deemed a different variety of Arabica known as var. Bourbon. The Santos coffee of Brazil and the Oaxaca coffee of Mexico are the progeny of that Bourbon tree. Circa 1727, the Emperor of Brazil sent Francisco de Mello Palheta to French Guinea to obtain coffee seeds to become a part of the coffee market. Francisco initially had difficulty obtaining these seeds yet he captivated the French Governors wife and she in turn, sent him enough seeds and shoots which would commence the coffee industry of Brazil. In 1893, the coffee from Brazil was introduced into Kenya and Tanzania (Tanganyika), not far from its place of origin in Ethiopia, 600 years prior, ending its transcontinental journey. The French colonial plantations relied heavily on African slave laborers. Ancient Production of coffee The first step in Europeans wresting the means of production was effected by Nicolaes Witsen, the enterprising burgomaster of Amsterdam and member of the governing board of the Dutch East India Company who urged Joan van Hoorn, the Dutch governor at Batavia that some coffee plants be obtained at the export port of Mocha in Yemen, the source of Europes supply, and established in the Dutch East Indies; the project of raising many plants from the seeds of the first shipment met with such success that the Dutch East India Company was able to supply Europes demand with Java coffee by 1719. Encouraged by their success, they soon had coffee plantations in Ceylon Sumatra and other Sunda islands. Coffee trees were soon grown under glass at the Hortus Botanicus of Leiden, whence slips were generously extended to other botanical gardens. Dutch representatives at the negotiations that led to the Treaty of Utrecht presented their French counterparts with a coffee plant, which was grown on at the Jardin du Roi, predecessor of the Jardin des Plantes, in Paris. The introduction of coffee to the Americas was effected by Captain Gabriel des Clieux, who obtained cuttings from the reluctant botanist Antoine de Jussieu, who was loath to disfigure the kings coffee tree. Clieux, when water rations dwindled during a difficult voyage, shared his portion with his precious plants and protected them from a Dutchman, perhaps an agent of the Provinces jealous of the Batavian trade. Clieux nurtured the plants on his arrival in the West Indies, and established them in Guadeloupe and Saint- Domingue in addition to Martinique, where a blight had struck the cacao plantations, which were replaced by coffee plantations in a space of three years, is attributed to France through its colonization of many parts of the continent starting with the Martinique and the colonies of the West Indies where the first French coffee plantations were founded. The first coffee plantation in Brazil occurred in 1727 when Lt. Col. Francisco de Melo Palheta smuggled seeds, still essentially from the germ plasm originally taken from Yemen to Batavia, from French Guiana. By the 1800s, Brazils harvests would turn coffee from an elite indulgence to a drink for the masses. Brazil, which like most other countries cultivates coffee as a commercial commodity, relied heavily on slave labor from Africa for the viability of the plantations until the abolition of slavery in 1888. The success of coffee in 17th-century Europe was paralleled with the spread of the habit of tobacco smoking all over the continent during the course of the Thirty Years War (1618–48). For many decades in the 19th and early 20th centuries, Brazil was the biggest producer of coffee and a virtual monopolist in the trade. However, a policy of maintaining high prices soon opened opportunities to other nations, such as Colombia, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Indonesia and Vietnam, now second only to Brazil as the major coffee producer in the world. Large-scale production in Vietnam began following normalization of trade relations with the US in 1995. Nearly all of the coffee grown there is Robusta. Despite the origins of coffee cultivation in Ethiopia, that country produced only a small amount for export until the Twentieth Century, and much of that not from the south of the country but from the environs of Harar in the northeast. The Kingdom of Kaffa, home of the plant, was estimated to produce between 50,000 and 60,000 kilograms of coffee beans in the 1880s. Commercial production effectively began in 1907 with the founding of the inland port of Gambela, and greatly increased afterwards: 100,000 kilograms of coffee was exported from Gambela in 1908, while in 1927-8 over 4 million kilograms passed through that port. Coffee plantations were also developed in Arsi Province at the same time, and were eventually exported by means of the Addis Ababa Djibouti Railway. While only 245,000 kilograms were freighted by the Railway, this amount jumped to 2,240,000 kilograms by 1922, surpassed exports of Harari coffee by 1925, and reached 9,260,000 kilograms in 1936. Australia is a minor coffee producer, with little product for export, but its coffee history goes back to 1880 when the first of 500  acres (2. 0  km2) began to be developed in an area between northern New South Wales and Cooktown. Today there are several producers of Arabica coffee in Australia that use a mechanical harvesting system invented in 1981. *** CHAPTER – 2 INSIGHT ON COFFEE INSIGHT ON COFFEE |Coffee | |[pic] | |Roasted coffee beans | |Type |Hot or cold beverage | |Country of origin |Ethiopia, and  Yemen | |Introduced |Approx. 15th century AD (beverage) | |Color |Brown | Coffee  is a  brewed  drink  prepared from roasted  seeds, commonly called  coffee beans, of the  coffee plant. They are seeds of coffee cherries that grow on trees in over 70 countries. Green coffee, for example, is one of the most traded agricultural commodities in the world. Due to its  caffeine  content, coffee can have a stimulating effect in humans. Today, coffee is one of the most popular beverages worldwide. It is thought that the energizing effect of the coffee bean plant was first recognized in  Yemen  in Arabia and the north east of  Ethiopia, and the cultivation of coffee first expanded in the Arab  world. The earliest credible evidence of coffee drinking appears in the middle of the fifteenth century, in the  Sufi  monasteries of the  Yemen  in southern  Arabia. From the  Muslim world, coffee spread to Italy, then to the rest of Europe, to  Indonesia, and to the Americas. Coffee has played an important role in many societies throughout history. In Africa and Yemen, it was used in religious ceremonies. As a result, the  Ethiopian Church  banned its secular consumption until the reign of EmperorMenelik II of Ethiopia. It was banned in  Ottoman  Turkey during the 17th century for political reasons,  and was associated with rebellious political activities in Europe. Coffee berries, which contain the coffee bean, are produced by several species of small  evergreen  bush of the  genus  Coffea. The two most commonly grown are  Coffea canephora  (also known as  Coffea robusta) and  Coffea arabica. Both are cultivated primarily in  LatinAmerica,Southeast Asia, and Africa. Once ripe, coffee berries are picked, processed, and dried. The seeds are then roasted to varying degrees, depending on the desired flavor. They are then ground and brewed to create coffee. Coffee can be prepared and presented in a variety of ways. An important export commodity, coffee was the top agricultural export for 12 countries in 2004,  and in 2005, it was the worlds seventh-largest legal agricultural export by value. Some controversy is associated with coffee cultivation and its impact on the environment. Many studies have examined the relationship between coffee consumption and certain medical conditions; whether the overall effects of coffee are ultimately positive or negative has been widely disputed. However, the method of brewing coffee has been found to be important. Biology Several species of shrub of the genus  Coffea  produce the berries from which coffee is extracted. The two main cultivated species,  Coffea canephora(also known as  Coffea robusta) and  C. arabica, are native to subtropical Africa and southern Asia. Less popular species are  C. liberica,  excelsa,stenophylla,  mauritiana, and  racemosa. They are classified in the large family  Rubiaceae. They are  evergreen  shrubs or small trees that may grow 5  m (15  ft) tall when unpruned. The leaves are dark green and glossy, usually 10–15  cm (4-6  in) long and 6  cm (2. 4  in) wide. Clusters of fragrant white flowers bloom simultaneously and are followed by oval berries of about 1. 5  cm. Green when immature, they ripen to yellow, then crimson, before turning black on drying. Each berry usually contains two seeds, but 5–10% of the berries  have only one; these are called  peaberries. Berries ripen in seven to nine months. Cultivation Coffee is usually propagated by seeds. The traditional method of planting coffee is to put 20  seeds in each hole at the beginning of the  rainy season; half are eliminated naturally. A more effective method of growing coffee, used in Brazil, is to raise seedlings in nurseries, which are then planted outside at 6 to 12  months. Coffee is often intercropped with food crops, such as corn, beans, or rice, during the first few years of cultivation. [pic] Map showing areas of coffee cultivation: r:Coffea canephora m:Coffea canephora  and  Coffea arabica a:Coffea arabica Of the two main species grown, arabica coffee (from  C. arabica) is considered more suitable for drinking than robusta coffee (from  C. canephora); robusta tends to be bitter and have less flavor but better body than arabica. For these reasons, about three-quarters of coffee cultivated worldwide is  C. arabica. However,  C. canephora  is less susceptible to disease than  C. arabica  and can be cultivated in  environments  where  C. arabica  will not thrive. Robusta coffee also contains about 40–50% more caffeine than arabica. For this reason, it is used as an inexpensive substitute for arabica in many commercial coffee blends. Good quality robustas are used in some  espresso  blends to provide a better foam head, a full-bodied result, and to lower the ingredient cost. The species  Coffea liberica  and  Coffea esliaca  are believed to be indigenous to  Liberia  and southern  Sudan, respectively. Most arabica coffee beans originate from either  Latin America,  eastern Africa, Arabia, or Asia. Robusta coffee beans are grown in western and  central Africa, throughout  southeast Asia, and to some extent in Brazil. Beans from different countries or regions can usually be distinguished by differences in flavor, aroma,  body, or acidity. These taste characteristics are dependent not only on the coffees growing region, but also on genetic subspecies (varietals) and processing. Varietals are generally known by the region in which they are grown, such as  Colombian,  Java  or  Kona. Production Brazil  is the world leader in production of green coffee, followed by  Vietnam  and  Colombia  the last of which produces a much  softer coffee. |Top twenty green coffee producers  Ã¢â‚¬â€ Tonnes (2007) and Bags thousands (2007) | |Country |Tonnes |Bags thousands | |[pic]  Brazil |2,249,010 |36,070 | |[pic]  Vietnam |961,200 |16,467 | |[pic]  Colombia |697,377 |12,515 | |[pic]  Indonesia |676,475 |7,751 | |[pic]  Ethiopia |325,800 |4,906 | |[pic]  India |288,000 |4,148 | |[pic]  Mexico |268,565 |4,150 | |[pic]  Guatemala |252,000 |4,100 | |[pic]  Peru |225,992 |2,953 | |[pic]  Honduras |217,951 |3,842 | |[pic]  Cote dIvoire |170,849 |2,150 | |[pic]  Uganda |168,000 |3,250 | |[pic]  Costa Rica |124,055 |1,791 | |[pic]  Philippines |97,877 |431 | |[pic]  El. Salvador |95,456 |1,626 | |[pic]  Nicaragua |90,909 |1,700 | |[pic]  Papua New Guinea |75,400 |968 | |[pic]  Venezuela |70,311 |897 | |[pic]  Madagascar[note 2] |62,000 |604 | |[pic]  Thailand |55,660 |653 | |  Ã‚  World |7,742,675 |117,319 | Ecological effects [pic] [pic] A flowering  Coffea arabica  tree in a Brazilian plantation Originally, coffee farming was done in the  shade  of trees, which provided a habitat for many animals and insects. This method is commonly referred to as the traditional shaded method, or shade-grown. Many farmers switched their production method to sun cultivation, in which coffee is grown in rows under full sun with little or no forest canopy. This causes berries to ripen more rapidly and bushes to produce higher yields, but requires the clearing of trees and increased use of fertilizer and pesticides, which damage the environment and cause health problems. When compared to the sun cultivation method, traditional coffee production causes berries to ripen more slowly and produce lower yields, but the quality of the coffee is allegedly superior. In addition, the traditional shaded method is environmentally friendly and provides living space for many wildlife species. Opponents of sun cultivation say environmental problems such as deforestation, pesticide pollution,  habitat destruction, and soil and water degradation are the side effects of these practices. The  American Birding Association,  Smithsonian Migratory Bird- Center, Rainforest Alliance, and the  Arbor Day Foundation  have led a campaign for shade-grown and  organic coffees, which it says are sustainably harvested. However, while certain types of shaded coffee cultivation systems show greater biodiversity than full-sun systems, they still compare poorly to native forest in terms of habitat value. Another issue concerning coffee is its  use of water. According to  New Scientist, if using industrial farming practices, it takes about 140 liters of water to grow the coffee beans needed to produce one cup of coffee, and the coffee is often grown in countries where there is a water shortage, such as  Ethiopia. By using   sustainable agriculture  methods, the amount of water usagecan be dramatically reduced, while retaining comparable yields. Coffee grounds may be used for  composting  or as a  mulch. They are especially appreciated by  worms  and  acid-loving plants  such as  blueberries. *** CHAPTER – 3 TYPES OF COFFEE TYPES OF COFFEE Coffea Arabica | | |Scientific classification | |Kingdom: |Plantae | |(unranked): |Angiosperms | |(unranked): |Eudicots | |(unranked): |Asterids | |Order: |Gentianales | |Family: |Rubiaceae | |Genus: |Coffea | |Species: |C. arabica | |Binomial name | |Coffea arabica |. Coffea arabica is a species of coffee originally indigenous to the mountains of Yemen in the Arabian Peninsula, hence its name, and also from the southwestern highlands of Ethiopia and southeastern Sudan. It is also known as the coffee shrub of Arabia, mountain coffee or arabica coffee. Coffea arabica is believed to be the first species of coffee to be cultivated, being grown in southwest Arabia for well over 1,000 years. It is considered to produce better coffee than the other major commercially grown coffee species, Coffea canephora (robusta). Arabica contains less caffeine than any other commercially cultivated species of coffee. Wild plants grow to between 9 and 12 m tall, and have an open branching system; the leaves are opposite, simple elliptic-ovate to oblong, 6–12  cm long and 4–8  cm broad, glossy dark green. The flowers are white, 10–15  mm in diameter and grow in axillary clusters. The fruit is a drupe (though commonly called a berry) 10–15  mm in diameter, maturing bright red to purple and typically contain two seeds (the coffee bean). | | Distribution and habitat Originally found in the southwestern highlands of Ethiopia, Coffea arabica is now rare there in its native state, and many populations appear to be mixed native and planted trees. It is common there as an understorey shrub. It has also been recovered from the Boma Plateau in southeastern Sudan. Coffea arabica is also found on Mt Marsabit in northern Kenya, but it is unclear whether this is a truly native or naturalised occurrence. Yemen is also believed to have native Coffea arabica growing in fields. Cultivation Coffea arabica takes about seven years to mature fully and does best with 1- 1. 5 meters (about 40-59  inches) of rain, evenly distributed throughout the year. It is usually cultivated between 1,300 and 1,500 m altitude, but there are plantations as low as sea level and as high as 2,800 m. The plant can tolerate low temperatures, but not frost, and it does best when the temperature hovers around 20  °C (68  °F). Commercial cultivars mostly only grow to about 5 m, and are frequently trimmed as low as 2 m to facilitate harvesting. Unlike Coffea canephora, Coffea arabica prefers to be grown in light shade. Two to four years after planting Coffea arabica produces small, white and highly fragrant flowers. The sweet fragrance resembles the sweet smell of jasmine flowers. When flowers open on sunny days, this results in the greatest numbers of berries. This can be a curse however as coffee plants tend to produce too many berries; this can lead to an inferior harvest and even damage yield in the following years as the plant will favor the ripening of berries to the detriment of its own health. On well kept plantations this is prevented by pruning the tree. The flowers themselves only last a few days leaving behind only the thick dark green leaves. The berries then begin to appear. These are as dark green as the foliage, until they begin to ripen, at first to yellow and then light red and finally darkening to a glossy deep red. At this point they are called cherries and are ready for picking. The berries are oblong and about 1  cm long. Inferior coffee results from picking them too early or too late, so many are picked by hand to be able to better select them, as they do not all ripen at the same time. They are sometimes shaken off the tree onto mats, which means that ripe and unripe berries are collected together. The trees are difficult to cultivate and each tree can produce anywhere from 0. 5–5  kg of dried beans, depending on the trees individual character and the climate that season. The real prize of this cash crop are the beans inside. Each berry holds two locules containing the beans. The coffee beans are actually two seeds within the fruit; there is sometimes a third seed or one seed, a peaberry in the fruits at tips of the branches. These seeds are covered in two membranes, the outer one is called the parchment and the inner one is called the silver skin. In perfect conditions, like those of Java, trees are planted at all times of the year and are harvested year round. In less ideal conditions, like those in parts of Brazil, the trees have a season and are harvested only in winter. The plants are vulnerable to damage in poor growing conditions and are also more vulnerable to pests than the Robusta plant. Gourmet coffees are almost exclusively high-quality mild varieties of coffea arabica, like Colombian coffee. Arabica coffee production in Indonesia began in 1699. Indonesian coffees, such as Sumatran and Java, are known for heavy body and low acidity. This makes them ideal for blending with the higher acidity coffees from Central America and East Africa. Coffea canephora | | |Scientific classification | |Kingdom: |Plantae | |(unranked): |Angiosperms | |(unranked): |Eudicots | |(unranked): |Asterids | |Order: |Gentianales | |Family: |Rubiaceae | |Genus: |Coffea | |Species: |C. canephora | |Binomial name | |Coffea canephora | Coffea canephora (Robusta Coffee Coffea robusta) is a species of coffee which has its origins in central and western subsaharan Africa. It is grown mostly in Africa and Brazil, where it is often called Conillon. It is also grown in Southeast Asia where French colonists introduced it in the late 19th century. In recent years Vietnam, which only produces robusta, has surpassed Brazil, India, and Indonesia to become the worlds single largest exporter. Approximately one third of the coffee produced in the world is robusta. Canephora is easier to care for than the other major species of coffee, Coffea arabica, and, because of this, is cheaper to produce. Since arabica beans are often considered superior, robusta is usually limited to lower grade coffee blends as filler. It is however often included in instant coffee, and in espresso blends to promote the formation of crema. Robusta has about twice as much caffeine as arabica. Description Coffea canephora grew.

Charles Frazier’s Cold Mountain Essay -- Charles Frazier Cold Mountain

Charles Frazier’s Cold Mountain Overcast by the gloom of the Civil War, Charles Frazier’s "Cold Mountain" details the growth of his characters as they cope with uncertain times. The two protagonists, Ada and Inman, traverse parallel paths toward redemption. While Ada adapts to an unfamiliar mountainous existence, Inman braves the risk of desertion to return to her. Both characters, however, seek love, spirituality, and an understanding of their disrupted world, and through their kindred courses, Frazier conveys the theme of questioning life. As the story opens, both Inman and Ada survey their unfamiliar situations. Inman nurses a near-fatal wound in a makeshift hospital where he sits â€Å"brooding and pining for his lost self† (23). Ada also grapples with a lost self, the self of city social status she abandoned to accompany her father on a mission. Intellectual and â€Å"educated beyond the point considered wise for females† (30), Ada lacks survival skills. The death of her father, Monroe, lays bare the extent of her incompetence. Though frustrated, Ada refuses to return to Charleston, where â€Å"she could expect little sympathy and much withering commentary† (64), and determines to overcome the challenges presented by her run-down farm. Similarly, as Inman’s wound heals, he cannot resign himself to continue fighting. He steps out the hospital window and into his future. Although under the perpetual threat of the Home Guard, he resolves to waste no more time under the direction of o thers and begins trudging home to Cold Mountain. In both circumstances, the characters embark upon journeys prompted by setbacks of the past. While the two sojourners embark upon independence, they also appraise their feelings towards one an... ...ace, an intricate and â€Å"luminous quiver of life† (138). In this thought process, Frazier exposes Ada’s maturity—whereas previously she relied on books as her primary source of knowledge, Ada now trusts her intuition and casts her own conclusions. The maturity and growth of both Ada and Inman stems from the hardships inflicted by the war. Throughout the novel, Frazier utilizes the introspection of these characters to present the enduring riddle of life. Attempts to decipher its meaning litter history. Various religions and myths resulted, but whom the world will favor over another cannot be predicted. Ultimately, Frazier illustrates that while faith and legends often furnish guidance, each person must interpret the world for himself. In the end, â€Å"all you can choose to do is go on or not. But if you go on, it’s knowing you carry your scars with you† (421).

History of Russian Thought Essay

Russian political and social thought remains a mystery to many historians, often insisting that Russia neatly follow western European categories of development and thought. Rejecting this odd sort of Euro-centrism is the first task of the intellectual historian, and from this point of view has Walicki made his career as the west’s premier historian of Russian political theory. Given the fact that this book is 467 pages, it is not this review’s intention to summarize the contents of this work, but rather to concern itself with method and the approach to this complex and ill-understood subject. A good place to start might be the basic class distinctions in Russian society. It is no accident that the book begins with two highly related objects: the rise of â€Å"enlightenment† thought under Catherine II (the Great) and, concomitant with this rise, the development of an elitist, aristocratic opposition to the crown. This start of some sort of Enlightenment-based criticism of monarchy derives both from western sources, that specifically of Montesquieu, as well as ancient Russian sources, that specifically of the ancient boyar duma, or elite assembly of the land. Hence, the stage is set for the remainder of the book: the constant fluctuation, often confusing, between modern, western models of political critique pleasantly seasoned with large doses of ancient political institutions. It is never made clear, and it is likely impossible to make clear, which element took center stage, the â€Å"west† or the ancient institutions. Among the Russian Slavophiles, major critics of Peter the Great and his western reforms, it is made clear. The Slavophiles, a specifically mystic, and Christian movement, almost Rousseauian in its basic social theory, based their approach on the criticism of the crown on the ancient Russian institutions of the peasant commune, the boyar Duma and the ancient piety of the Russian Church. Hence, early on, Walicki crates a typological distinction that defines the entire work: that between the more or less western-style, liberal rejection of monarchical absolutism, and a more peasant-based and communal criticism of the centralization of royal power. Neither approach rejects monarchy per se, but they criticize the development of the Petrine state, that is the centralized, expensive, militarized and bureaucratic absolutism introduced into Russia by Peter the Great as incompatible with Russian traditions. In terms of this typology, the most extreme of the first group might be the Decembrist movement, especially in the radical masonic societies of Paul Pestel. Unlike many historians, Walicki refuses to ignore the powerful part played by Masons in 18th and 19th century Russian history. The Decembrists, like nearly all opposition movements in the mid 19th century, was both Masonic and aristocratic, having few roots among the common people. Ultimately, Pestel rejected monarchy altogether, demanding an aristocratic based popular assembly elected by full and universal suffrage without property qualifications. He promised Poland its independence, and even became the first Russian Zionist, holding that Jews who refused to assimilate into the new Russia would be sent to Palestine to create a new Jewish nation with government assistance. He was joined in the revolutionary effort by the Society of United Slavs, also aristocratic and military based, who fought with Pestel over ideological concerns, chief of which was the place of old Russian institutions in the new society. The United Slavs, slightly less radical then Pestel’s organization, sought to base the new democratic order on the old Russian institutions of the duma and collective farming arrangements. Now, while the Decembrists ultimately failed, largely due to internal divisions and their lack of understanding of Russian conditions, the real significance of these movements was to give the aristocracy a public program run by semi-secret organizations, in the Decembrist case, military societies. The very fact that these groups were wealthy and aristocratic proves their limitations, and does show, as Walicki insists, that there is no distinction between class and political ideology, since political ideology was largely dictated by class status, at least in the sense that Russian nobles viewed themselves as heir to old Russia rather than to Petrine Russia. But just what they meant by â€Å"old Russia† is another story, and itself is a powerful subtext to this work. The approach to Freemasonry in Russia is worth a review in itself. Rarely dealt with in a serious way, the Masons are depicted by Walicki as the last refuge of the old aristocracy both accepting and rejecting the western Enlightenment. The failure in this otherwise excellent section is whether or not the public statements of the Masonic organizers were truly the belief of the order, or were simply exoteric utterances of the â€Å"initiated† speaking to a â€Å"backward† society. Nevertheless, Masonry (and Walicki holds that these were mostly funded by foreign sources) became a sort of pseudo-religion for the alienated old aristocrats long pushed out of power by the distant, upstart Petersburg bureaucracy. It is clear that the Masons were strictly clubs for the wealthy, sought to usher in a new â€Å"golden age† of history and looked down upon finance. These rather odd confluences of ideas simply tell us what little the Masons ere willing to speak about in public, or, even more, the fact that the aristocracy was using Masonry to challenge the organization of the Petersburg bureaucracy. Either way, masonry was a means whereby the old aristocracy could organize their forces and pool resources, but whether there was a political program that was basically agreed upon is another matter. Pestel’s group came the closest. It is rare that the western Enlightenment is imported wholesale into Russia. In fact, Pestel is an exception in that regard. At first, the famed Russian polemicist Peter Chaadaev held that western Europe should be imported to Russia, since, as he became famous for saying, â€Å"Russia has no history. Chaadaev made himself infamous in Russia by holding that there was no â€Å"Russian history† until Peter the Great made elite Russia European, slyly assuming that historical nations are European, technically advanced and based on baconian scientific models of administration. But his fascination with such things faded early on in his career, as both the revolutionary fervor of France and the dominance of the bourgeois repelled him. For Chaadaev, â€Å"Old Europe† was that of the medieval aristocracy rather than the modern, revolutionary bourgeois. Later figures like Alexander Herzen began their own careers with the same approach, only to actually live in England and France in exile, eventually returning to Russia with a loathing for European fashions and political ideologies. But all of these distinctions can be brought under our original methodological heading: the aristocratic opposition to the crown and the forms that this upper class agitation can take. The problem with this approach is that it leaves out the peasantry as a politically active part of the population. The fact that Walicki has no reference to the Old Believers and their strict, Russian Orthodox anarchism that numbered about 20 million followers by the middle of the 19th century is a major, glaring fault in the work itself. But, without saying so explicitly, this work seems to revolve around the aristocracy and the modes that their opposition to the Petrine state took over time. But the positive side to this approach is that it proves, contrary to typical courses in political theory, that radicalism in Russia was an upper class phenomenon and had few roots with the peasants, who were inclined to the Old Belief. Class status here meant that the higher one found oneself in the economic or aristocratic hierarchy, the more you were inclined to oppose the state (which itself, was based on a service bureaucracy rather than the old aristocracy) and the more one was to lean to radical theories of either economics or politics. The smattering of detail this review offers seeks to suggest that the aristocratic splits in Russian society are responsible for the development of its political ideas. Even more, if a thesis of this work can be found, this is likely it. Masonry, materialism, communitarianism, and even Marxism (though much later) all stem from the various battles among aristocratic and otherwise upper class factions. What they had in common was that they were wealthy, urban and sought to bring about a semi-utopia by force and revolution, bringing the â€Å"dark masses† to a â€Å"true knowledge† of their destiny and social importance. Hence, all of these movements opposed the monarchy in one sense or another. With very few exceptions, these movements all began rather enamored with western ideas, only to be repelled by them once actual contact with westerners became a fact. But the enlightenment was not rejected, only dressed in Russian clothing. Only the Leninists broke this mold, importing Marxism from Germany with few modifications, without the slightest concession to Russia as a cultural entity. The very fact that Leninism was so bizarre in Russian history shows how alien it was from currents of even the most radical thought in Russia and hence, how it was forced to impose itself by violence. What seems to link all Russian radical ideas together is that they were not Leninists, in the sense that they all looked to Russian tradition for the germs of radical institution-building. Hence, one can conclude by holding that Russian radicalism sought to build enlightenment ideas on old Russian institutions. A project destroyed by Lenin, largely never to be revived.

Dancing with the White Rabbit

Carly Turner English 102 Polliard May 5th, 2011 Dancing With The White Rabbit People go under sedation all the time. They jump into the rabbit hole to receive colonoscopies, plastic surgery, dental work and other various medical procedures. Today’s world has become accustomed to regular use of sedation drugs however they do not realize just how dangerous they can be. There are many factors to be taken into account when someone is put under. Proprofol (Diprivan), a drug that is used to induce sedation, which is the cause of many medical malpractices and deaths, is not supervised enough in the medical community.Propofol is one of the most widely used forms of anesthesia (Nytimes. com). It was invented 20 to 25 years ago (News Week). It has multiple benefits over general anesthesia. Unlike general anesthesia, propofol has rapid onsets. â€Å"If you try to count backward from 100 after it's injected, you don't get to 97,† says Dr. Wischmeyer, a University of Colorado Anesth esiologist (Wall Street Journal). It also allows patients to recover and return to baseline activities such as eating and breathing on their own faster. In addition, it can result in less nausea and vomiting in patients (Ismp. rg). Because of this many practioners feel a false sense of security when using propofol. It can be harmful and even deadly if the person who is administering it is not trained in drugs that cause deep sedation and general anesthesia. On the labeling of Diprivan (Propofol), it is intended â€Å"for general anesthesia or monitored anesthesia care sedation†, meaning that that drug should only be administered by people trained in general anesthesia and not involved in the procedure being done. Propofol is an exact science. Dosing needs to be based on the patient’s tolerance to the drug.A number of factors including the age, weight, and how hydrated the person is factors into the efficiency of the drug (News Week). The tolerance can vary and can chan ge easily. Also, for a patient who uses it the first time, it’ll be much more potent but for a patient who uses it often it stays in the tissues and creates a tolerance to the drug (Inside Surgery). The possible side effects, are changes in moods and emotions, dizziness, drowsiness, and a lack of coordination (Drugs. com). The harsher effect is that a patient can go from breathing normally to being in respiratory arrest in seconds, even at what seems like a low dose.There are also no reversal agents to propofol, which means that the drug’s adverse effects have to be treated while the drug is being metabolized in the body (Inside Surgery). Considering all of these variables this makes working with propofol difficult and somewhat unpredictable, even for a trained professional. If a patient isn’t monitored closely enough by a person trained in sedation while on propofol then they can quickly go into respiratory arrest and thus get brain damage or die from not enoug h oxygen to the organs and brain (Ismp. rg). During a procedure, a nurse who was trained in moderate sedation, assisted a gastroenterologist in surgery by giving the patient propofol. The nurse gave too high of a dosage of propofol to the patient and the patient started experiencing respiratory arrest. In another case, a physician thought it would be safe to administer propofol himself while performing a breast augmentation surgery. According to a poll, eighty-three percent of people thought it was wrong for a surgeon to administer the propofol himself (Survey. com).The young patient died from not getting enough oxygen to the brain because there was no one there to supervise her. Nurses have been asked to give â€Å"a little more† of the propofol if a patient moved. Anesthesiologists have been known to leave the room and leave the syringe filled with propofol and a needle in the IV port so that the nurses can monitor the patient alone themselves. This has been brought to the attention of some hospital’s leaders however no laws have been enacted about this. Additionally, money is an issue when deciding the safety of the patient.There is sometimes an unwillingness of insurers to reimburse anesthesiologists for their care and thus nurse-administered propofol happens quite often and untrained nurses may be caught in the middle of such a debate and feel pressures to administer the propofol themselves. States in the U. S. all have different views on propofol and whether or not it needs to be administered by a trained anesthesiologist or if a nurse should be allowed to do it (Kathy Dix). On an online survey seventy-eight percent of people believe that a trained anesthesiologist should be in control of the propofol and not a nurse (Survey. om). It usually comes down to that health care facilities board and is not decided by the state. In a recent survey, it stated that ninety-six percent of the people thought that every hospital and healthcare facility s hould have set rules on the matter (Survey. com). In addition, American Society of Anesthesiologists, American Association of Nurse Anesthetists, and American A ssociation for Accreditation of Ambulatory Surgery Facilities believe that the only persons trained in administering general anesthesia should administer propofol to non-ventilated patients.The American Society of Anesthesiologists suggests that if that is not possible then non-anesthesia staff who do administer the drug should be qualified to rescue the patients if their level of sedations becomes deeper than intended (Ismp. org). Along with the issue of propofol not being safely administered, it is also abused in the medical community itself. This can be done easily because it is not listed as a â€Å"controlled substance† by the Food and Drug Administration.The drug is likely to be liked by abusers because it induces relaxation or sleep and can cause euphoria and also leaves the bloodstream so fast that it is diffi cult to detect (Nytimes). Anesthetists and abusers of propofol say that it can bring a brief but captivating high as the sedation wears off. It has been referred to as â€Å"dancing with the white rabbit† (referring to the white color of the drug) and â€Å"pronapping† because the drug induces a short sleep that many practioners and medical personnel use between their long shifts (Wall Street Journal). Many practioners do not feel that propofol should be a more controlled substance.However, according to a poll, eighty-seven percent of people think that propofol should be listed as a controlled substance (Survey. com). Naming propofol a controlled substance under the Drug Enforcement Agency’s rules would require the hospitals to track their inventory, account for all the propofol vials, list all of it’s users, and lock it up with the hospital’s narcotics. If these actions were taken doctors and nurses seeking rehabilitation for their abuse of propof ol might cost them their licenses and lead to them having criminal charges because they would have been abusing a Drug Enforcement Agency controlled drug.Michael Jackson’s young death is the most well-known case of propofol abuse and has rekindled the propofol controversy the last two years. Detectives found large quantities of propofol and oxygen tanks in his home. Along with this they found that he had a personal physician that allegedly admitted to administering the drug to Jackson the day the singer died. Jackson reportedly had insomnia and was seeking aid from the drug. It seemed that his dance with the white rabbit caused his death, and may be the cause of many others if not taken into control. ’It enters your bloodstream fast, and even highly trained anesthesiologists can't control it, and die. They don't even have seconds to pull out the needle,’ said Art Zwerling, a registered nurse anesthetist and counselor with the Association of Nurse Anesthetistsâ⠂¬  (Wall Street Journal). When the drug is being used properly there should be strict procedures enforced regarding the supervision of vital signs and oxygen saturation to assure that the patient is safe. Health care facilities should inform all the staff working around propofol how dangerous it is.Today’s standards on the administration of Diprivan (Propofol) are too lenient and need to be reformed. In conclusion, the distribution and handling of this drug needs to be strictly supervised. Work’s Cited â€Å"What the Heck is Proprofol? More Info On the Drug That May Have Killed Michael Jackson† News Week. Web. 29 Jul. 2009. <http://www. newsweek. com/blogs/the-human-condition/2009/07/29/what-the-heck-is-propofol-more-info-on-the-drug-that-may-have-killed-michael-jackson. html> â€Å"How to use Diprivan† Drugs. com. Web. 18 Mar. 2011. <http://www. drugs. om/diprivan. html > â€Å"Propofol (Drug)† Web. 7 Aug. 2009. <http://topics. ny times. com/topics/news/health/diseasesconditionsandhealthtopics/propofol/index. html> â€Å"Michael Jackson’s Death From Propofol† Inside Surgery. Web. 24 Aug. 2009. <http://insidesurgery. com/tag/diprivan/> â€Å"Practical Guide to Moderate Sedation/Analgesia† Odom-forren. Donna Watson. 2005. Mosby Inc. â€Å"Propofol (A Drug Used For Sedation)† Carly Turner. Survey ages 18-50, 23 surveyors. Web. 4 May. 2011. Survey. com <http://www. survey. com/cgi-bin/pollxt. pl? poll=PM2U1AR9U9G8>

She essays

She essays Acceptance. Love. Arent these two words feelings everyone longs for? No matter what age you are, everyone wants to be accepted and loved. Acceptance is especially important to teenagers. The ability to fit in and be like everyone else. It hurts to see the fingers pointing or hear the mocking laughs behind your back. In the novel Shes Come Undone by Wally Lamb, a young girl named Dolores goes through numerous hardships using food and anger as her shoulder to lean on. However, through all the tragedies, all the taunting, all the problems, Dolores comes out triumphant and happy. If you think no one could understand the cruelties of being overweight, of going through hard times, then you havent met Miss Dolores Price. Mr. Pucci was Doloress school counselor while shes in high school at St. Anthonys. Mr. Pucci was there for Dolores whenever she needs him and puts up with her foul-mouthed language and attitude. He was there through all the usual high school dilemmas, after her mother and fathers divorce, through the months her mother is at a mental facility, through her mothers, grandmothers, and fathers death, and her painful divorce from her first husband, Dante. Mr. Pucci was always uplifting to Doloress hurting spirit. He pushed her to achieve more, make dreams for herself, and then carry those dreams out. Dolores was able to return the favors to an extent once she reached her twenties, after her grandmother died. Mr. Puccis better half, Gary passed away due to AIDS, but had passed the HIV virus to Mr. Pucci. Dolores proved to be nothing less and nothing more than a sturdy rock for Mr. Pucci to lean on. They both healed each other through the time they had together. Since Dolores is the narrator, you are in her thoughts, you hear what she hears and see what she sees. It feels you could point Dolores out if you saw her walking down the stree...

Choosing the Types of Essay Writing Languages

Choosing the Types of Essay Writing Languages Idioms, Slang or Jargon. What Is and Appropriate Essay Writing Language? Different types of academic papers require different writing approaches. You will hardly write an expository essay in the same way using the same words as in an argumentative essay. Otherwise, your academic success will be doomed to failure. In other words, a student should be a versatile writer able to choose the write language for a particular type of essay writing. Let’s find out, which is a proper variant and which is not. Essay writing language – formality level Most of the essay papers require formal style. They include cover letters, job applications, journalist notes, etc. On the other hand, you should always consider the type of your target audience when depending the level of formality. A too formal paper may look a bit boring and less engaging. To make things easier for readers, use the following formality levels: Formal style – a typical language of the highest formality level used for unknown audience; Semi-formal – the best bet for essay papers, emails, etc.; Informal – more humorous way of introducing content applicable to friends and relatives. Essay writing language – jargon Although we rarely come across this type of language in academic papers, it can still be used in particular context especially when it comes to different social groups that refer to specific nation backgrounds. Using jargon where appropriate may be a good way to grab the attention of the audience adding some style to your paper. Idioms and slang expressions Slang appears to be inappropriate language when it comes to academic writing. You are not supposed to right â€Å"wanna† or â€Å"y’all†. The same thing is with idiomatic expressions like â€Å"barking at a wrong tree†. Some students mistakenly think that idioms show a good knowledge of language. However, they appear to degrade the content as well as the overall impression. So, try to avoid them. How to write an essay using different languages? It does not matter what type of academic paper you were assigned. Using a proper language and writing style is vital. Keep in mind that essay writing is far from producing articles or novels. You need to follow academic standards in addition to requirements established by your professor. Avoid being arrogant and stick to formal style in addition to the following tips: Sound confident and objective – your language is your face. Make sure it sounds objective and confident even on the paper; Keep an Eye on Tenses – those little guys can be rather tricky. Determine the tenses you are going to use in advance. They will depend on the paper type and topic; Make it Simpler – although the paper is called â€Å"academic† it does not actually mean it is supposed to be complicated. Avoid complex sentence structures and make the paper easy to read. Use strong specific words to express your confidence and expertise. Make sure your paper does not contain vague phrases or words. Keep it simple and clear for the audience.

The Concept of Caring in Nursing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

The Concept of Caring in Nursing - Essay Example The question does arise as to the importance of caring to the nursing profession. The answer to that lies in the accepted fact that caring is an essential facilitator for curing and healing and with the nursing profession steeped in trying to bring about curing and healing the importance of caring in this role becomes clear (Ott, Al-Khaduri & Al-Junaibi, 2003). So what does that caring to a nursing professional mean? There are several theories to caring in the nursing profession. A lot of literature has been written on caring and the nursing profession. However, there are three theories that bring about clarity to the issue of caring in the nursing profession. These three theories are: Care consists of the assistive, supportive, or facilitative actions that are taken for or towards another individual or group of individuals that have clear or anticipated requirements to reduce or improve a human condition or way of life. As a result Leininger,(1984, p. 4) defines caring as â€Å"the direct (or indirect) nurturant and skilful activities, processes and decisions related to assisting people in such a manner that reflects behavioural attitudes, which are empathetic, supportive, compassionate, protective, succorant, educational and others dependant on the needs, problems, values, and goals of the individual or group being assisted†. The general nursing theory of Orem essentially consists of three parts. The first part of the theory consists of the Self-Care element, in which an adult through deliberate means learns and perform actions directed towards survival, improved quality of life and well being. The second element is the Self-Deficit part, according to which, nursing is an essential factor towards the learning of the Self-Care element, as the adults are not in a position to perform self-care because of the limitations of their situation. The third element is the nursing element in the nursing system.

Competition among Hospitals for HMO Business Case Study

Competition among Hospitals for HMO Business - Case Study Example The independent variables are: an index of relative hospital prices for HMO business in each market (price); high tech-capability; teaching status (teaching or non-teaching); ownership status (non-profit, for-profit, or public); and location. To provide answer to the second research question, that is, to account for the effect of the structure of the hospital market on market share, three variables were added: no. of hospitals in the market, no. of HMOs in the market, and the HMO penetration rate. For both price and non-price attributes, the regression test pointed to an effect on market share variables. Hospitals with lower prices had a bigger share of HMO business. The more high-tech a hospital was, the greater the share in the HMO business. Teaching hospitals were more preferred by HMOs than non-teaching ones. On the effect of ownership: on average, nonprofit and public hospitals had less market share than for-profit ones.